Communication and Leadership Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Communication and Leadership Paper - Essay ExampleFor the declare oneself of this disposition, the arguments would use Barack Obama as an orator and a good communicator. It is to imply that the essay would peg the character of chairman Barack Obama and how they qualify him as a good communicator.To light with, it was impressive for President Barack Obama to campaign and articulate issues to the general population from a position of political and historical disadvantage. Historically, the people of African-American descent did not waste the benefit of being able to vote not to mention the ability or the chance to vie for the highest political office in the land. However, during the electric chairial campaigns, President Barack Obama did postulate a running caption and theme which was the basis of his campaigns (Nisbet, 2009). Thus, being able to present the Yes We Can slogan to the general public smacks of excellence in the prospects of good communication skills. Intuitively, the ability to make the general electorate to believe ion the common destiny of a public president and a revived economy implied that as a communicator the president had to articulate and convince the general public to move in the right direction.The second instance and reason which makes it apparent to the communication abilities of president Barack Obama was the style in presidential debates. It is conventional knowledge and wisdom that the then Democrat presidential candidate scored well in the debates over the two concomitant candidate in John McCain and Mitt Romney. Most of the observers noted that President Barack Obama during the debates did put in a lot of effort and income to win the hearts of the heart-to-heart voters in the elections. In all aspects and fairness, he did maintain a positive attitude and respectable smile to the audience of listeners and viewers all over the joined States of America. His body

Consumer Attitude Moulding for Korean car Imports in Australian Market Essay

Consumer Attitude Moulding for Korean car Imports in Australian Market - Essay Exampleative characteristics, here the attitude hierarchy would be cognitive then affect, how the consumer feels or first chose delirious then rational, you will not act on it before you go through a cognitive and emotional process (Foxall, 2002). You will make sure that you look at as many features as possible and go through intense emotional processes, rather of depending on your mood while looking at a car. For example if you have a family you will consider a mini-van over a sofa bed because of the added benefits and features, you will then see if you will enjoy the car, how will your family like it is it giving you the satisfaction you insufficiency, and then you will finally decide on the connotation, whether you want to buy it or not. This goes for all products that require high involvement of the consumer. (Windham & Orton, 2000)As a strategic Marketing manager for a new line of sec Korean cars in Australia I have to consider many things about the product. As a Strategic Marketing Manager I should have in-depth companionship of competitive dynamics and how to integrate marketing strategy into the overall business strategy, I should be adapted to develop Frameworks for analyzing customer preferences and enhancing customer relationships and should be able to Build and manage brand equity with effective market communication. (Chernev, 2007) (Stanford, 2008)Hyundai and its auxiliary Kia are currently the 7th largest car group in the world, just afterward companies like GM, Ford, Toyota, Renault-Nissan, Volkswagen and DaimlerChrysler. It is also one of the fastest rising companies and a formidable rival to Western car makers. With the benefits such as low labour and separate cost in Korea and the governments policies that favour the car industry, Hyundai and Kia are able to price their cars much cheaper and at an affordable cost than Western and Japanese cars. At the same ti me, the company has been able to improve its engineering and quality standard swiftly in recent years,

Electronic money challenges and solutions Essay

Electronic money challenges and solutions - Essay ExampleAs Bill Gate, the founder of Microsoft puts itE-payment or electronic payment is a technique of making proceedings over the internet or some other electronic system. The transaction takes place in the form of secure data transfer from one turn back to the other. The greatest advantage of an e-payment based transaction is the speed with which the transaction gets completed. Other benefits include the ease with which the transaction can be completed the users do non arrive to be physically present to make these transactions and in fact, both buyers and sellers can meet in the electronic market to make electronic transactions using electronic money.There ar various forms of e-payment systems that are in use nowadays. These include credit cards, debit cards, online transfers, wire transfers, e-money like hold Pal, and other modes through which people make payments over the web. Most of these systems are based on a ID and pass word system to protect against unauthorized usage.With an ontogenesis in the magnitude of online applications and systems, there is a growing threat of security issues, vulnerabilities and exposure on the use of electronic transmission, and internet based systems. This has been a strike for companies, individuals, government and law enforcement agencies. Doing transactions online means making payments for the goods and services that are purchased this leads to a need for underdeveloped a mechanism to make these e-payments. This further translates into developing and implementing a security process to ensure that these transactions are carried out keeping the confidentiality, integrity and availability of the systems intact. An e-transaction is as susceptible to fraud as all other transaction, if not more. The fraudsters are many in the electronic world, are dispersed all round the globe, have update knowledge and expertise most the systems and computers, and are attacking to ga in access to, and in many cases, to use the identity, funds and communication of a person in illegal, unethical and undesired way.2.1 surety Issues for E-Money and E-Payment SystemsSecurity of electronic money refers to establishing the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information when it is passed through the electronic system. Some security requirements for an electronic money transfer system are outlined below (British Standards, 2006, p.3)Confidentiality - ensuring that information is accessible only to those authorized to have access to it.Integrity - safeguarding the accuracy and completeness of information and processing methodsAvailability - ensuring that authorized users have access to information and associates assets when requiredAuthenticity - information should be available to sender and recipient, who must prove their identities to each otherNon-repudiation - assurance/ proof that the convey message was indeed received (ECD, 2007).3.Key Challenges and Re commendations for Electronic Payment SystemsA description of specific risks and challenges of online transactions is provided below.3.1Privacy and

Consumer Behavior case analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Consumer Behavior case analysis - Essay ExampleEfficiency in the company will be increased when the customers are able to know about the company via the tease aparts. That will cut on the cost that the company will use on advertising. That in one way will increase efficiency of the companys advertising campaign and in another way increase the positivity of the company. Profitability will increase because of the reduced advertising costs.Halley should hold on to the ride as it has shown benefits to the customers and likewise to HOG. Customers get a great experience during the ride when they get to interact with the other customers and HOG personnel. This in turn is a good marketing strategy, because when the customer is happy the sales will improve. Alternatively, because the rides go on getting better, it would be appropriate just to keep them running rather than do away with them (Fournier 7).The Posse locomotes bring customers unitedly, help them bond and with other customers, together with their HOG staff. Judging from the riders comments, where some talk of finding new friends, as Brad, Marie, and Jim Stephens did. When executives participate in the ride, they get to know about the Halley customers, and to more understand their needs. finished the interactions they have, the executives are able to get the customers opinions and to better understand their view on the product and get to know how best to improve the next brand.The Posse Ride is also a marketing strategy as people get to know about the brand as they get to test the product. The Ride also removes a notion that being a rider is a very funny hobby, as one of the riders commented that her kids did not support her being a rider and sometimes were embarrassed, but after the ride, they have to embrace her being a rider.The Ride has a lot of benefit to the customer in the following areas, ground on the research done from the Posse Ride they get

Merger,Acquisition,and International Strageties Assignment

Merger,Acquisition,and International Strageties - Assignment ExampleIt has been clarified that the merger of the two companies was enhanced by the fact that AMR corporation had previously encountered numerous loses. Therefore, it was within the take up interest to file a case to declare the status of bankruptcy. Therefore, the engagement into a merger concept was seen as one of the best ways that would fix the organizational, financial status back to normalcy.Initially, American airways were recognized as one of the lucrative companies in the airline industry with up to 3100 flights departing from the United States and other contrary parts of the world on a daily basis. An airline company with integrated customers carriers employed over 32,000 aviation personnel. Having played an lively role in human rights network, the organization was rewarded 100 percent by the human right corporation because of the quality index and campaign for the transgender employees. By the line of desc ent of 2012, the airline corporation started feeling the effect of financial turbulence. As such, it was declared bankrupt by the united stain the department of justice to forge in the lead for the merger by the United States airways and form American Airline Inc (Bryer & Simensky, 2002). It was considered a vital step towards reviving the organizational level of competitiveness. Therefore, AMR Corporation applied to Dallas/ stronghold worth court and requested for bankruptcy approval permitting merger to a United States airways group. At first the application was not very successful, but later on court judge Sean Lane intervened the procedure was allowed to continue.Although the two American airline companies were given go ahead to form a merger, coming up with a single certificate took some time while the newly formed organization had already started enjoying numerous benefits. For instance, the merger was perceived to as a knowing decision because it has created an open way

Small Business and Taxation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Small Business and Taxation - Research Paper ExampleTaxes on capital or even on profits reduce incentives for businesses to their efforts in investing in new equipment, increasing their levels of return on investment. Most of the taxes resulting to wayward effects include corporate tax and business rates. These taxes also reduce entrepreneurial activity rate within the UK economy. Again, increased taxes on labor uniform national insurance to the employers reduce the abilities of small businesses to incorporate new staff. This is said to consequently lead to the reduction of headcount by small businesses, especially overdue to the high costs that are associated. Empirical pieces of evidence linking high labor taxation to increased employment or low employment seem to be very strong. From a global scope, the global economy is said to have recorded an annual contraction in 1946 as its first time. Recessions such as the case of the year 2009 were argued to have been the first recessio n during the globalization error. This happened with a widespread downturn, which spread through global trade as well as the connections of financial markets. The credit crunch is believed to have been the main factor that triggered the recession (Kirchhoff, 1996). Credit crunch led to the loss of confidence amongst banks within the banking system, especially in the UK.Other effects caused by the credit crunch involved the collapsing pieces of evidence back lending markets, which resulted from high exposure of banks to vulnerable assets like residential mortgage backed securities.

The Internal Morality of Chinese Legalism Essay Example for Free

The Internal Morality of Chinese Legalism EssayAbstractIt is widely held that there argon no indigenous root in China for the happen of justness it is an import from the West. The Chinese juristic tradition, rather, is bump by truth, as elaborated in old-fashioned Legalist schoolbooks such as the Han Feizi. According to the conventional adaptation of these texts, natural law is a incorrupt and an instrument in the hands of a central ruler who employs law to consolidate and maintain fountain. The ruler is the arising of all law and stands preceding(prenominal) the law, so that law, in the final compend, is some(prenominal) pleases the ruler. This essay postulates, to the contrary, that the instrumentalism of the Han Feizi is more sophisticated and more principled than the conventional reading acknowledges. It suggests that, by examining the text of the Han Feizi through the lens provided by American legitimate theorist Lon Fuller, we can detect an explicit artic ulation of what Fuller called the internal morality of law. The principles of this morality argon elaborated and their brilliance explained. In this way, the Han Feizi is retrieved as a significant reference point for thinking about legal reform in China today.I am indebted(predicate) to Liang Zhiping and David B. Wong for comments on an earlier draft, and to William P. Alford, as ever, for his counsel in thinking about law and legal institutions in China.IntroductionThe rule of law is now usually regarded as an obligatory step to establishing Chinas rightful place in the global residential district. to date it is widely believed that there are no indigenous roots for the rule of law ideal it is an import from the West. The Chinese legal tradition, rather, is rule by law, as elaborated most fully in ancient Legalist texts such as the Han Feizi.The distinction between rule by law and rule of law has many dimensions. Of central importance is the relationship of law and morality. Although no canonical formula exists for the rule of law, a moral ideal lies at the core, however it is specified. In rule by law, in contrast, at least fit to the conventional understanding, law is amoral and an instrument of might. A typical statement is offered by Burton Watson, the respected translator of Han Feis work in English Legalism, Watson says, professed to down no use for morality whatsoever (and similarly for religion and ceremony). It focused on a single problem strengthening and preserving the state.1 In this regard, Watson heeds Arthur Waley, who said that members of the school of law (fajia) held that law should replace morality. Instead of the term school of law, which he regarded as too narrow, Waley referred to members of the fajia as the Amoralitsts.2It is because of this alleged amoralism that Randall Peerenboom can write a 670page adjudge on Chinas long march toward the rule of law and barely mention Han Fei. Peerenboom expresses the conventional fascin ate for Han Fei, law is one instrument in the rulers toolbox for sustaining strong centralized control. Since the ruler is the source of all law, and stands above the law, there are no limits or effective checks on the rulers arbitrary power. In the final analysis, law was what pleased the ruler.3 This view of Legalism is reinforced by a particular reading of Chinese legal history during the period of the Three Dynasties, Chinas bronze age. Liang Zhiping, the eminent legal scholar, claims that the predilection for rule by law, in Han Fei and other Legalists, has its roots in the way law emerged initially in China, namely, as an instrument by which a single clan exercised control over rival clans. Within a system that was inherently unstable law was confabn as the will of the rulers and an instrument of suppression its primary manifestation was in punishment.Hence, the choice of rule by law was the production of an extended and unique cultural development. The legalists merely dev eloped to its extreme the ancient legal model, you who obey my orders shall be rewarded before my ancestors and you who disobey my orders shall be put to end before the spirits of the land.4 These two conceptions of law and legal institutionsrule by law and the rule of laware familiar in the West, although rule by law now has few, if any, advocates. only if one needs to go back only to John capital of Texas, the influential 19th century English legal theorist, for systematic elaboration of rule by law. Western theorists, indeed, might be tempted to look at Chinese Legalists through the lens of capital of Texas, since his work enables us to see a systematic consistence of thought in the Han Feizi.However, this lens, I shall argue, brings some elements of the Han Feizi into sharp focus only at the cost of distorting others. Western theorists need a corrective lens, which is provided by Lon Fuller. In assessing capital of Texass account, Fullers approach is most facilitateful becau se it offers an internal critique, showing that denial of a raise up connection between law and morality is inaccurate to the theory itself. Fullers account does not rest on a semantic analysis of law but on a pragmatic appreciation of legal order as a form of governance. Out of this appreciation, the practical connectionthe inter military action and mutual dependence of law and morality in the everyday work of lawmakers and other collaborative participants in the creation of legal orderemerges even in rule by law properly understood. Thus, Fuller shows how the moral core of the rule of law is present in the generic use of law in society.The moral core of the rule of lawthe thin theory, as it is often called encompasses two key ideas (1) While law is an instrument of political power, law besides constrains power. Hence, law and power are, to some degree, opposed. (2) While law channels political power, law also enables power to be rightly exercised. Hence, law is a source of le gitimation for the exercise of power. How is political power constrained and yet also rightly exercised? The rule of law ideal is that these conditions are met if it is truly the law that governs legal subjects, not the wishes of specific unmarrieds or groups. The ideal is a government of laws, not persons, so the moral core (in a word) is impersonal governance. My thesis is that Han Feis text, the Han Feizi, displays this moral core and thus connects law and morality. I shall argue, indeed, that the Han Feizi advocates a purer form of the rule of law than is offered by many Western theorists. Chinese Legalism did not begin with the Han Feizi, but it is world-widely regarded as the most sophisticated exposition of the theory. I believe it is more nuanced than generations of commentators have acknowledged.It is important to emphasize that my interest is with the rule of law as a legislative, rather than judicial, ideal. This focus is appropriate for the Han Feizi, since it contains no explicit judicial theory (although it has definite implications, as we shall see, for the work of judges). That federal agency that the vision of law in the Han Feizi is incomplete. On the other hand, most Western theorists neglect the legislative ideal, and many mis takenly believe that judicial independence (or the separation of powers) is sufficient for establishing the rule of law.I shall suggest that, at least for the legislative ideal, expenditurey indigenous Chinese sources for the rule of law exist. Contrary to Watson and Peerenboom, I argue that the Han Feizi intends to link law and morality. But I should say from the beginning that this essay is not an attempt to recapture Han Feis conscious motives or point of view. It is an attempt to retrieve a text for contemporary understanding and use. Admittedly, this effort runs the risk of literary misprisionwillful, not to say creative, misreading. But recovering the rich history of Chinese legal thought seems to me worth that risk. It is often said, with good reason, that successive Chinese emperors followed the Legalist template set out by the Han Feizi. If it turns out that the Han Feizi carries a different message from the one it is usually taken to convey, the imperial history whitethorn have to be re-examined to determine when it followed the template and when it did not.5 I Rule by law Han Fei and John AustinThe conventional reading of the Han Feizi pictures law as an instrument in the hands of the ruler. This could mean different things. Instrumentalism is sometimes construed to mean that rulers use law only if and when it suits their purposes it is employed (or not) at the rulers discretion to achieve the rulers own desires or ends. In this construction, law does not have any special pride of place, and certainly nought beyond a fortuitous connection to moral value. On any particular occasion, if a ruler fails to realize his or her will by the use of law, an alternative instrument of govern ance could be deployed. Lets call this ad hoc or strategic instrumentalism. This is not rule by law, as I understand it. Rule by law meets at least one and possibly two conditions missing from ad hoc instrumentalism. Most importantly, the commitment to rulesfixed standards of general applicabilityis not ad hoc they are the rulers chosen mechanism of governance. Thus, the commitment to rules is deliberate and firm, and the instrumentalism is consistent and principled.This commitment, we shall see, introduces a variety of self-imposed constraints on lawmaking and secures the connection between law and morality. Second, the rules promulgated are not necessarily intended to serve the lawmakers personal desires or ends. They may serve common ends, or they may permit (or enable) subjects to pursue ends of their own. In that event, we move from a minimal to a morally robust instrumentalism. If the rules facilitate the credit line of ends other than those of the lawgiver, principled instru mentalism transitions into the rule of law.Although the Han Feizi is conventionally read as committed (at worst) to ad hoc instrumentalism or (at best) to a consistent but minimal instrumentalism, I shall argue in section III that many of the essays that make up the Han Feizi advocate a robust principled instrumentalism. For this reason, it will be helpful to examine for the first time a systematic statement of the minimally instrumentalist view. John Austin is more clearly committed to minimal instrumentalism, because his aims were more academicto elaborate a systematic theorywhereas Han Fei wished to provide practical advice to rulers. A consideration of Austin enables us to grasp what coherence the minimally instrumentalist view has.Like Han Fei, Austin aimed to be a realist about law, to examine actual facts in the world. That led him to trace the existence of law to the exercise of power. Accordingly, the proper understanding of law is genetic. In the strict sense, law is a co mmanda wish expressed by a determinate person or body possessing supreme power in an organized and independent society, backed by the credible flagellum of a sanction (i.e., pain) in the event of noncompliance. Why does the credible threat of a sanction make a law binding?Austin was a voluntarist about law as he was in theology. The avocation to obey a command rests not on its conformity to an independent moral standard but simply on its emanating from a preponderant power. To have a duty to act is to be compelled to act. It is only by the chance of incurring evil, that I am bound or obliged.7 Thus, whether divine or human, law makes its fashion within a relationship of dominationa pucka (in power) issuing orders to an inferior (in power), where the former has the capacity to compel the latter to act by means of a threatened evil, i.e., pain. The duty is legal if it is issued by a political sovereign, moral if issued by God.Hobbes observed that the conditions for a social contra ct obtain if persons are of roughly equal ability, for then they acquire an equality of hope in having their respective claims satisfied. But in circumstances where a clear supremacy of power lies in one individual or body, no question as to the proper distribution of duties and rights arises. The distribution of duties and rights naturally parallels the distribution of power.8 That, obviously, is Austins view as well. The foundation of law is force or the threat of its use.To have a duty, therefore, in Austins quaint phrase, is to be obnoxious to the superordinate words threat. Obnoxiousness is determined by one of two empirical facts either the extent to which the inferior party is motivated by veneration of the sanction, or the likelihood that the superior party will carry out its threat. While the pursuit of pleasure is as much an ultimate spring of human action as the avoidance of pain, the latter is more to be relied on than the former. The certainty and severity of threatene d pain, in the event of noncompliance to the superiors commands, are defining features of legal (as of moral) order.Since the definition of law stipulates nothing about the content of the superiors wish, law may have any content whatever and still be binding. The separation of law and morality is secured might makes right. Thus, law is imperative, preemptory, morally arbitrary, coercive, and an instrument of domination. It also, as we shall see more fully in a moment, aims above all at stability and order. By definition, Austins sovereign is not subject to a superior power and hence does not have any legal duties. (By the aforesaid(prenominal) token, the sovereign does not have any legal rights, either.) Austin formulates this point most sharply by sight that every government is legally despotic.9 This is a provocative way of saying that its power is legally unlimited it stands above the law and can make, or unmake, any law whatever.It is not misleading to say the sovereign is sel f-legitimating, as long as we keep in mind that legitimation comes not from upstanding a standard of legitimacy but from the successful exercise of supreme power. Yet one of the virtues of Austins writing is that it is richer than the genetic definition of law would lead one to expect. (Failure in the legal literature to appreciate the richer analysis is the same kind of failure one finds regarding the Han Feizi.) Exploring some of this richness will help us develop a critique that illuminates the Han Feizi. Austin actually formulates three distinct definitions of lawin addition to the genetic there are egg and purposive definitionseach of which meshes imperfectly with the others.The formal definition appears when Austin stipulates that a command is a law only if it has the attribute of generality, that is, it must refer to a class of acts to be done or avoided, not a single action. Particular or occasional commands are not laws in the strict sense.11 This term is sensible, sinc e modern law typically consists of a body of standing rules, not extemporaneous orders. It shows that Austin thought of legal order as a system, or at least a set, of rules. But in relation to the genetic definition, it is completely unmotivated nothing in the meaning of command requires it.At the same time, the implications are profound. The addition of generality represents a significant departure from personal command and toward impersonal governance. It commits the lawmaker to acting in certain ways in as yet unknown cases. And, by grouping actions into classes, it produces a degree of uniformity of treatment across persons. So, with generality, the picture of a compliant inferior hobby the wishes of a superior recedes to a significant degree.These implicationsuniformity across persons and prior commitment in unknown casesindicate that certain formal features of laws may have moral import, and I shall say more about them in a moment. With law understood as a self-conscious inst rument of domination expressing the wishes of a (human) sovereign, it is only to be expected that Austin would stress the potential divorce between the content of promulgated laws and the requirements of morality. The existence of law is one thing its be or demerit is another.12 But if law itself, simply as a body of general rules, has moral import regardless of its content, we have taken an important step toward a robust instrumentalist account of law.The richness of Austins analysis is even more evident in his purposive definition. In its most general and comprehensive sense, he says, a law is a rule laid down for the guidance of an intelligent being by an intelligent being having power over him.13 Asymmetry in power is central for Austin, as we have seen, but intelligent guidance introduces a different dimension. Austin followed Locke in thinking of law as a human contrivance, establishing relations between rational beings. But the idea of intelligent guidance has implications A ustin was hesitant to pursue. He recognized, for example, that the concept of command precludes ex post facto rules, since an utterance cannot constitute a command if the action required cannot be performed. Yet to acknowledge this conceptual point would be tantamount to placing a limit on sovereign power an ex post facto pronouncement would not be a law, even though it possessed all the other features of the genetic definition.14 Further, such acknowledgement would be the first step on a slippery slope. It would allow one to say that other pronouncements of the sovereign are also not laws, for instance, ones that are not clear in meaning. How could an obscure or incoherent utterance provide intelligent guidance to human conduct? Or an utterance that was not made public? Or that kept ever-changing? These implications are precisely the ones pursued by Fuller in developing what he called the internal morality of law. Before turning to Fuller, however, we should pause to ask why Austin recoiled from the implications of his purposive definition and instead adhered to the idea of law as an instrument in the hands of a supreme person or body exercising power over others.My hypothesis is that rule by law in its minimalist variant was important to Austin for two related reasons the fear of disorder and the uncertainty of morality. Both of these were reflected in Austins ambivalence about the expansion of democracy in England in the early 19th century. He saw little possibility, at least in the foreseeable future, of achieving the educational and mental improvement of the general population that he regarded as a requirement of democratic government. As a result, according to John Stuart Mills account, Austin developed an indifference, bordering on contempt, for the progress of popular i.e., democratic institutions.15 In addition, Austin believed that common moral opinion was so fractured, so full of partiality and prejudice, that ordinary people cannot be trusted to a ct decently. What makes government by a powerful ruler necessary and expedient is the uncertainty, scantiness, and imperfection of the moral beliefs people espouse.Hence the necessity for a common governing (or common guiding) head to whom the community may in concert defer.16 The resonance of these passages with much of the Han Feizi, or at least the conventional reading of it, should be apparent. Lack of confidence in the capacity of human beings to govern themselves makes it necessary to have a sovereign whose will provides common directives that are easily discernible and effective. If people are allowed to follow their natural propensities, they will engage in all manner of disorderly behavior. Social order requires stable external direction by means of the threat of force.Thus, the solution to the problem of social orderHobbess problemis managerial direction (to use Fullers term). Without top-down control, matters are likely to get badly out of hand. The exercise of control in Austins case, of course, is thought of as benign. The goods of order and unity are taken for granted. The power of the superior is canvassed, not in terms of personal wishes or even class interests, but its efficacy in producing the steadiness, constancy, or uniformity that every society needs. Thus, Austinlike Han Fei, as I shall arguemakes sense of law in practice as an instrument in the hands of a single individual or mandarin elite with the competence and requisite disinterestedness to attend to the public need. To that extent, Austins theory is a pure expression of rule by law.